Maximizing Success with Critical Minerals: A Guide for Mineral Exploration Companies

1. Introduction: Unveiling the Potential of Natural Zeolites in Modern Construction

The global construction industry faces an urgent imperative to adopt more sustainable practices. A significant driver for this shift is the substantial carbon footprint associated with Portland cement production, which is estimated to be responsible for approximately 8% of global anthropogenic CO2​ emissions. Given that concrete is the most widely used construction material on the planet, with cement as its critical binding agent, the environmental impact is profound.

This has spurred intensive research and development into alternative and supplementary cementitious materials (SCMs) that can reduce reliance on traditional cement clinker, thereby lowering emissions and conserving natural resources.

Among the promising candidates are natural zeolites, a group of crystalline minerals with a unique suite of properties that make them suitable for a diverse range of industrial applications, including a significant role in enhancing concrete performance. Pozzolans, by definition, are siliceous or silico-aluminous materials that, in a finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, react with calcium hydroxide (a byproduct of cement hydration) to form compounds with cementitious properties.

This pozzolanic reaction not only allows for a reduction in clinker content but can also lead to improved durability and long-term strength of concrete, contributing to a more circular economy by utilizing naturally abundant or industrial by-product materials.

The exploration and adoption of natural pozzolans like zeolites are not merely academic pursuits; they represent a critical industry response to pressing global environmental pressures and resource management imperatives. The successful integration of these materials into mainstream construction can contribute significantly to the decarbonization efforts within a sector that is one of the largest industrial emitters of CO2​.

This article provides an in-depth examination of the use of natural zeolites as pozzolans. It delves into their fundamental characteristics, geological origins, the mechanisms of their pozzolanic activity, their multifaceted impacts on concrete properties, the necessary processing, economic considerations, prevailing market trends, the challenges associated with their application, and their future prospects in the realm of sustainable concrete technology.

The discussion aims to mirror the comprehensive and informative style of analyses conducted for other natural pozzolans, such as diatomite, to provide a thorough understanding of zeolite’s potential.

2. What are Zeolites? Understanding These Unique Minerals

Zeolites are a fascinating class of minerals, first identified in the 18th century by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt. He observed that upon rapidly heating certain stones, they appeared to boil due to the vigorous evaporation of water.

He named them “zeolites,” from the Greek words zéō (to boil) and líthos (stone). This historical anecdote hints at one of their characteristic properties: reversible dehydration.

Technically, zeolites are crystalline, hydrated aluminosilicates primarily composed of alkali (like sodium and potassium) and alkaline earth (like calcium and magnesium) metals. Their fundamental chemical makeup consists of silicon (SiO4​), aluminum (AlO4​), and oxygen atoms arranged in a repeating, three-dimensional framework structure. Within this framework, some tetravalent silicon ions (Si4+) are isomorphously substituted by trivalent aluminum ions (Al3+).

This substitution creates a net negative charge on the aluminosilicate framework, which is balanced by the presence of exchangeable cations (e.g., Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+) residing within the structural cavities and channels.

These cations, along with loosely bound water molecules, occupy the pores and channels within the zeolite structure. The ratio of silicon to aluminum (Si/Al ratio) is a critical parameter, influencing many of the zeolite’s properties, including its ion-exchange capacity and hydrophobicity.

The defining characteristic of zeolites is their microporous nature, often described as a “honeycomb” or “cage-like” microstructure. This structure comprises uniform, molecular-sized pores, channels, and cavities, typically in the range of 3 to 10 Ångstroms (e.g., dehydrated zeolite A pores are around 6 Ångstroms 7).

This regular porosity allows zeolites to act as “molecular sieves,” selectively adsorbing or excluding molecules based on their size, shape, and polarity. This unique structural design—comprising an aluminosilicate framework, inherent negative charge, exchangeable cations, and well-defined porosity—underpins their suitability for a multitude of functions. These include not only molecular sieving and catalysis but also ion exchange and pozzolanic activity, both of which are highly relevant to their application in concrete.

The microporosity and extensive internal surface area, vital for their molecular sieve function, are also directly linked to their reactivity as pozzolans by significantly increasing the contact area available for chemical reactions with calcium hydroxide in the cementitious matrix.

Over 40 types of zeolites occur naturally, with clinoptilolite being one of the most common, while more than 150 types have been synthesized for specific industrial applications. Natural zeolites are seldom found in a phase-pure state and are often intermixed with other minerals, volcanic glass, or different zeolite species.

While this may limit their use in highly specialized applications requiring extreme purity, such deposits can still be valuable sources for pozzolanic materials, provided the impurities do not negatively impact concrete performance.

Table 1: Typical Chemical and Physical Properties of Natural Zeolites (e.g., Clinoptilolite) (Data synthesized from multiple sources including 8)

3. Geological Formation and Global Occurrence of Zeolites

Natural zeolites are predominantly formed through the geological alteration of fine-grained volcanic materials, such as volcanic ash and tuffs.

This transformation typically occurs when these reactive volcaniclastic sediments interact with alkaline groundwater, or in saline alkaline lake deposits and shallow marine basins over considerable geological timescales, ranging from thousands to millions of years.

The specific type of zeolite formed is influenced by several factors, including the chemical composition of the parent volcanic glass, the temperature (often in the range of 27°C to 55°C), the pH (typically between 9 and 10) of the reacting fluids, and the pressure conditions during diagenesis.

Among the approximately 40 naturally occurring zeolite species, some of the most common and commercially significant include clinoptilolite, chabazite, mordenite, analcime, heulandite, phillipsite, and stilbite.

Clinoptilolite, in particular, is one of the most abundant natural zeolites and is frequently the primary constituent in deposits exploited for pozzolanic applications and other industrial uses.

Zeolite deposits are found worldwide, particularly in regions with a history of volcanic activity.

Significant commercial production occurs in countries such as the United States (with notable deposits in New Mexico, California, Idaho, Texas, Oregon, and Arizona), China, Greece, Japan, Cuba, Russia, Italy, South Africa, Hungary, Bulgaria, and Peru.

Companies like St. Cloud Mining operate several zeolite mines across the US, producing various zeolite types for diverse markets. A critical aspect of natural zeolite deposits is their inherent variability.

Unlike synthetically manufactured materials, natural zeolites are rarely pure and are often found intermixed with other minerals such as quartz, feldspars, clays, other zeolite species, or unaltered volcanic glass. The chemical composition, mineralogical purity, Si/Al ratio, type and concentration of exchangeable cations, and physical properties can vary significantly not only between different deposits but also within a single ore body.

This geological origin and the conditions of formation are directly responsible for this variability, which presents a primary challenge for their consistent and predictable application as SCMs in concrete.

While industrial by-products like fly ash also exhibit variability, the range in natural geological materials can be even broader, necessitating careful geological assessment, selective mining, rigorous characterization, and quality control protocols.

The economic feasibility of using natural zeolites as pozzolans is therefore intrinsically linked not just to the abundance of the raw material but also to the costs associated with these quality assurance measures and any beneficiation processes required to achieve a product suitable for consistent performance in concrete.

4. Key Physical and Chemical Properties Relevant to Pozzolanic Use

The utility of natural zeolites as pozzolans stems from a unique combination of their physical and chemical characteristics, which are intrinsically linked to their crystalline structure and composition.

High Surface Area and Porosity: The three-dimensional framework of zeolites results in a highly porous structure, characterized by interconnected micro- and nanopores, channels, and cavities. This creates a very large internal and external surface area, often measured by methods like BET (Brunauer-Emmett-Teller) gas adsorption. This extensive surface area is paramount for pozzolanic reactivity, as it provides a multitude of sites for chemical interaction with calcium hydroxide in the cement paste. The large void volume also contributes to their overall characteristics.

Ion-Exchange Capacity (CEC): As previously mentioned, the substitution of Al3+ for Si4+ in the zeolite framework creates a net negative charge, which is balanced by mobile cations (e.g., Na+, K+, Ca2+, Mg2+). These cations can be readily exchanged with other cations present in a surrounding solution. This property, known as Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC), is a hallmark of zeolites and is exploited in applications like water softening, ammonia removal from wastewater, and as carriers for agricultural nutrients. In the context of concrete, CEC can influence the chemistry of the pore solution. For instance, the ability of zeolites to exchange alkalis like Na+ and K+ ions can be beneficial in mitigating the deleterious Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR) by reducing their concentration in the pore fluid. This represents an added advantage beyond their primary role as a pozzolan.

Adsorption Properties: The well-defined pore structure and internal electrostatic fields enable zeolites to adsorb a variety of gases, vapors, and dissolved substances. They show a particular affinity for polar molecules like water, but can also adsorb non-polar molecules. This high adsorption capacity is fundamental to their use as desiccants, in pet litter for odor control, and in purification processes. When incorporated into concrete, this property can influence the mix’s water demand. While the high porosity and adsorption capacity are beneficial for pozzolanic reactivity by increasing surface area, they simultaneously contribute to a practical challenge: increased water demand in fresh concrete. More water or superplasticizers may be needed to achieve the desired workability, creating a trade-off between enhanced reactivity and mix design complexity.

Reversible Dehydration and Hydration: Zeolites can lose their structural water upon heating and subsequently re-adsorb water from the atmosphere or a moist environment without undergoing significant structural collapse. This reversible process is linked to their “boiling stone” discovery. They also exhibit a high heat of water adsorption. In concrete, this property might offer potential for internal curing by releasing adsorbed water during hydration, although this aspect is not extensively detailed for pozzolanic use in the available information.

Density and Thermal Stability: Natural zeolites generally have a relatively low density compared to other rock-forming minerals. Their crystalline structure is remarkably stable, even when dehydrated, and they possess high melting points, typically around 1000°C. This thermal and structural stability ensures their integrity within the alkaline and thermally variable environment of hydrating and hardened concrete.

Chemical Reactivity (Pozzolanic Nature): The core reason for considering zeolites as SCMs is their inherent pozzolanic reactivity. Their aluminosilicate composition provides the necessary reactive silica (SiO2​) and alumina (Al2​O3​) that can participate in the pozzolanic reaction with calcium hydroxide.1 This chemical characteristic is the foundation of their ability to enhance cementitious systems.

5. Zeolites as a Natural Pozzolan: Enhancing Cement and Concrete

The primary function of zeolites in concrete, relevant to this discussion, is their role as a natural pozzolan. Understanding this requires a grasp of what a pozzolan is and how the pozzolanic reaction unfolds.

What is a Pozzolan? The Pozzolanic Reaction Explained: A pozzolan is defined by the American Concrete Institute and ASTM C618 as a siliceous or siliceous and aluminous material that, in itself, possesses little or no cementitious value but will, in finely divided form and in the presence of moisture, chemically react with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)2​, often abbreviated as CH) at ordinary temperatures to form compounds possessing cementitious properties.

Calcium hydroxide is a principal hydration product formed when Portland cement reacts with water; specifically, it is liberated during the hydration of tricalcium silicate (C3​S) and dicalcium silicate (C2​S), the main strength-contributing phases in cement.

The pozzolanic reaction essentially involves the consumption of this CH by the reactive silica and alumina from the pozzolan to produce additional calcium silicate hydrates (C-S-H) and, depending on the alumina content, calcium aluminate hydrates (CAH) or calcium alumino-silicate hydrates (C-A-S-H).1 C-S-H is the primary binding phase in hydrated cement paste, responsible for its strength and durability.

By forming more C-S-H, the pozzolanic reaction helps to refine the pore structure, increase the density of the cement matrix, and enhance the overall performance of the concrete. This reaction typically occurs more slowly than the primary cement hydration reactions, often contributing to long-term strength development.

How Zeolites Exhibit Pozzolanic Activity: Natural zeolites, being rich in reactive forms of silica and alumina within their aluminosilicate framework, readily fit the definition of a pozzolan. The mechanism of their pozzolanic activity in the highly alkaline environment of concrete (pH > 12.5) is multifaceted.

It generally involves several steps:

Initial Cation Exchange: Exchangeable cations within the zeolite structure may interact with ions in the pore solution.

Dissolution/Breakdown: The alkaline pore solution attacks the zeolite structure, leading to the partial or complete dissolution of the aluminosilicate framework. This releases reactive silica and alumina species into the solution.

Formation of Transient Phases: Amorphous gel-like phases may form as intermediates during the dissolution and reaction process.

Precipitation of Hydration Products: The dissolved silica and alumina react with calcium ions (primarily from CH) and water to precipitate new cementitious phases, predominantly C-S-H and CAH.

Several factors influence the pozzolanic reactivity of a given zeolite:

Zeolite Structure and Type: Different zeolite minerals (e.g., clinoptilolite, chabazite, mordenite) have distinct framework structures, Si/Al ratios, and pore characteristics, leading to variations in their reactivity.

For instance, studies have shown that zeolite A (LTA type) may react more readily than zeolite X (FAU type), but zeolite X, being slightly more siliceous, might contribute more to the development of mechanical strength at short curing times.

Specific Surface Area and Particle Size: Finer grinding of the zeolite increases its specific surface area, providing more sites for reaction and accelerating the pozzolanic process. This is a common principle for all pozzolanic materials.

Chemical Composition: The Si/Al ratio within the framework and the nature and concentration of extra-framework cations can affect both the kinetics of the reaction and the total amount of CH consumed. Higher silica content in the zeolite may contribute more significantly to C-S-H formation.

Purity: The presence and nature of impurities (e.g., clays, quartz, other non-reactive minerals) in natural zeolite deposits can dilute the reactive zeolite content and potentially influence the overall reaction.

The pozzolanic reaction of zeolites offers a dual benefit: it contributes to strength through the formation of additional C-S-H, and the consumption of Ca(OH)2​ inherently improves durability. Ca(OH)2​ is a relatively soluble phase in hardened cement paste and can be a point of weakness, particularly in environments prone to chemical attack (e.g., sulfate attack, where it reacts to form expansive and damaging ettringite).

By reducing the Ca(OH)2​ content, zeolites enhance resistance to such chemical degradation.3 The effectiveness of a specific natural zeolite as a pozzolan is therefore not solely determined by its bulk chemical composition (i.e., totalSiO2​+Al2​O3​ content) but is significantly modulated by its specific crystal structure, Si/Al ratio, particle size distribution, and purity.

This means “zeolite” is a broad term, and for optimal pozzolanic use, careful selection, characterization, and processing are essential.

Processing Natural Zeolites for Pozzolanic Applications: To be effective as a pozzolan, natural zeolites typically undergo processing after mining. The most crucial step is grinding the raw zeolite rock to a fine powder. This comminution process significantly increases the surface area, which is essential for enhancing the rate and extent of the pozzolanic reaction. Fineness requirements are often stipulated in standards for pozzolans, such as ASTM C618.

Beyond grinding, other modifications can be considered:

Thermal Activation (Calcination): Heating some natural pozzolans can dehydroxylate clay impurities or create a more disordered, reactive amorphous structure, thereby enhancing their pozzolanic activity. While common for materials like kaolin (to produce metakaolin), the specific benefits and optimal conditions for calcining zeolites for pozzolanic use require careful evaluation, as excessive heat can damage the zeolite structure or lead to recrystallization into less reactive phases.

Chemical Modification: Treating natural zeolites with certain chemical solutions (e.g., with NH4​Cl) has been shown to enhance specific properties, such as their cation exchange capacity, which can improve their effectiveness in mitigating ASR.

Intergrinding with Cement Clinker: Some research suggests that intergrinding zeolite with cement clinker, rather than blending separately ground materials, can result in a bimodal particle size distribution and improved strength properties of the set material, particularly at later ages.

• Impact of Zeolites on Concrete Properties

The incorporation of natural zeolites as a partial replacement for Portland cement can significantly influence various properties of both fresh and hardened concrete.

• Fresh Concrete Properties

The behavior of fresh concrete containing zeolites is largely dictated by the physical characteristics of the zeolite particles, particularly their porosity and surface area.

Workability and Water Demand: A common observation is that natural zeolites tend to increase the water demand of concrete mixtures to achieve a specific workability or slump. This is attributed to their highly porous structure and large surface area, which adsorb a portion of the mixing water. Consequently, cement replacement levels of 10% or higher with zeolite often lead to a reduction in slump unless the water content is increased or a higher dosage of superplasticizer is employed. This increased water demand is a key challenge noted for many natural pozzolans and can negatively affect mix consistency if not properly managed.

Setting Time: The effect of zeolites on setting time can vary. Some studies indicate that zeolites may accelerate both the initial and final setting times of concrete. This could be due to several factors, including the fine zeolite particles acting as nucleation sites for cement hydration products, or the absorption of water by the zeolite effectively reducing the water-cement ratio at the surface of cement particles, thereby accelerating their hydration.

Bleeding and Segregation: Despite the potential for increased water demand, zeolite addition can positively influence the stability of the fresh concrete mixture. Research suggests that zeolites can reduce bleeding (the upward migration of water after concrete placement) and segregation (the separation of coarse aggregate from the mortar phase). This improvement in cohesiveness is likely due to the fineness of the zeolite particles and their ability to absorb excess water, leading to a more homogeneous mixture.

The impact of zeolites on fresh concrete properties thus presents an optimization challenge. While benefits like reduced segregation are desirable, they must be balanced against the drawbacks of increased water demand (which can lead to lower strength and durability if uncompensated, or increased cost if managed with superplasticizers) and potentially altered setting times. This necessitates careful mix design, potentially involving pre-saturation of the zeolite or precise control of admixture dosages.

• Mechanical Properties

The influence of zeolites on the mechanical strength of concrete is primarily linked to the pozzolanic reaction and its contribution to the microstructure.

Compressive Strength: Numerous studies have demonstrated that partial replacement of Portland cement with natural zeolite, typically in the range of 5% to 20% by weight, can result in comparable or even superior compressive strengths compared to conventional concrete, particularly at later ages (e.g., 28 days, 90 days, and beyond).

For example, concrete with 5% zeolite showed a 10.4% increase in 28-day compressive strength in one study 17, while a synthesized AX zeolite reportedly increased compressive strength by up to 28.6% after 28 days. Another study using Jordanian natural zeolite found a 20% increase in 28-day compressive strength with a 10% replacement level. The pozzolanic reaction, being slower than the primary cement hydration, contributes to this strength gain over time. Consequently, the early-age strength of zeolite concrete (e.g., at 1, 3, or 7 days) might sometimes be lower than that of the control concrete.33 This is due to the “dilution effect” – replacing a portion of the rapidly hydrating cement with a slower-reacting pozzolan – and the time required for the pozzolanic reaction to significantly contribute to strength. This characteristic time-dependent strength development profile is a hallmark of pozzolanic activity and needs consideration in construction practices, such as scheduling formwork removal.

Flexural and Split Tensile Strength: Similar to compressive strength, the addition of zeolite can also enhance the flexural and split tensile strengths of concrete. Optimal replacement levels for these properties often mirror those observed for compressive strength, typically falling within the 10% to 20% range.19 For instance, one study reported that a combination of 10% zeolite powder as cement replacement and 30% zeolite sand as fine aggregate replacement yielded optimal compressive and split tensile strengths.

Optimal Replacement Percentages: The most frequently reported optimal replacement levels of cement with natural zeolite for achieving enhanced mechanical properties generally lie between 10% and 20% by weight.19 Some investigations suggest that replacement levels up to 30% can be beneficial, particularly for high-performance concrete (HPC) or when using specific types of zeolites or advanced processing techniques.37 However, exceeding the optimal level can lead to a reduction in strength. This decrease may be attributed to an excessive dilution of the cement content, an insufficient amount of calcium hydroxide available for the pozzolanic reaction with higher zeolite dosages, or an increase in porosity due to unreacted zeolite particles. It is crucial to recognize that the “optimal replacement level” is not a universal constant; it is highly dependent on the specific characteristics of the zeolite used (mineralogical type, fineness, purity, reactivity), the type of cement, the overall mix design (especially the water-binder ratio), curing conditions, and the specific performance criteria being targeted. This underscores the necessity for thorough testing and characterization of the particular zeolite source rather than relying on generalized recommendations.

• Durability Enhancements

One of the most significant contributions of zeolites as pozzolans is the enhancement of concrete durability, offering improved resistance to various aggressive environments and degradation mechanisms. This broad-spectrum improvement arises from a combination of physical pore refinement and chemical modifications within the cement matrix.

Improved Resistance to Chloride Ion Penetration: The ingress of chloride ions into concrete is a primary cause of reinforcement corrosion in structures exposed to marine environments or de-icing salts. Zeolites have been shown to significantly reduce chloride ion penetration. This enhanced resistance is attributed to several factors: the pozzolanic reaction leads to a denser, less permeable microstructure with a refined pore system, making it more difficult for chloride ions to diffuse through the concrete. Additionally, some studies suggest that zeolites may possess a chloride-binding capacity, further immobilizing chlorides within the matrix. For example, a 10% zeolite addition was reported to reduce chloride penetration by an average of 30% 39, and a 15% natural zeolite content was identified as an appropriate option for improving this property.33

Mitigation of Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR): ASR is a deleterious chemical reaction between the alkaline pore solution in concrete and reactive forms of silica present in some aggregates, leading to expansion and cracking. Natural zeolites have demonstrated effectiveness in mitigating ASR expansion. The mechanisms responsible for this beneficial effect include:

Consumption of calcium hydroxide by the pozzolanic reaction, which can lower the pH of the pore solution.

Reduction of alkali concentration (e.g., Na+ and K+ ions) in the pore solution through the ion-exchange capability of zeolites.

Refinement of the pore structure, which can limit the mobility of ions and the transport of moisture necessary for the ASR gel to swell. Chemically modified zeolites can be particularly effective in ASR control, and studies have shown that replacing 15% of cement with natural zeolite can increase ASR resistance.

Enhanced Sulfate Attack Resistance: Sulfate attack occurs when sulfate ions from external sources (e.g., soil, groundwater) penetrate the concrete and react with components of the hydrated cement paste, notably calcium hydroxide and calcium aluminate hydrates, to form expansive products like gypsum and ettringite, leading to cracking and deterioration. Zeolite addition has been shown to markedly increase the resistance of concrete to sulfate attack. The primary mechanism is the consumption of calcium hydroxide by the pozzolanic reaction, which reduces the amount of CH available to react with sulfates. Furthermore, the formation of a denser and less permeable microstructure due to the pozzolanic reaction restricts the ingress of sulfate ions into the concrete.

Reduction in Permeability and Porosity Refinement: The pozzolanic reaction products, particularly the additional C-S-H gel, fill capillary pores within the cement paste, leading to a more refined pore structure, reduced overall porosity, and consequently, lower permeability.17 Studies have indicated that zeolite-modified cement pastes have fewer large capillary pores (e.g., those greater than 50 nm in diameter).17 While some research notes that the total porosity might increase at very high zeolite replacement levels, possibly due to the presence of fine pores within unreacted zeolite particles, the interconnectedness of these pores may be reduced, often resulting in lower water penetration depth and improved resistance to fluid transport.17 This reduction in permeability is a fundamental factor contributing to many of the observed durability enhancements, as it limits the rate at which aggressive substances can enter and move within the concrete.

The multiple pathways through which zeolites improve durability—physical pore refinement, chemical consumption of vulnerable Ca(OH)2​, and unique ion-exchange capabilities—make them a versatile SCM for producing concrete that is more resilient to a wide array of aggressive environmental conditions. This multifaceted impact is a key advantage in their application.

Table 2: Summary of Effects of Zeolite on Key Concrete Properties (Based on typical findings from cited research, e.g.17)

6. Zeolites vs. Other Pozzolans: A Comparative Perspective (Focus on Diatomite where data allows)

Natural zeolites are part of a broader family of pozzolanic materials, which includes other natural substances like diatomite, volcanic ashes and tuffs, and trass, as well as artificial (or industrial by-product) pozzolans such as fly ash, silica fume, and metakaolin. Each of these materials possesses unique characteristics that influence its performance in concrete. A direct comparison with diatomite is particularly relevant given the reference to an article on diatomite as a pozzolan. Both zeolite and diatomite are naturally occurring siliceous or aluminosiliceous materials that exhibit pozzolanic activity when finely ground and mixed with cement. Both generally contribute to the improvement of late-age mechanical strength and influence the hydration kinetics of cement. A common characteristic of many natural pozzolans, including both zeolite and diatomite, is their tendency to increase the water demand of concrete mixes due to their inherent porosity and surface area. However, there are notable differences, as highlighted by studies such as one comparing four natural mineral additives:

Composition: Zeolites used in such studies are often predominantly clinoptilolite, an aluminosilicate mineral.20 Diatomite, on the other hand, is a siliceous sedimentary rock primarily composed of amorphous opaline silica (from the fossilized remains of diatoms), though it may also contain crystalline phases like quartz and muscovite.20 The synthesis of zeolite from diatomite is possible, underscoring their fundamental chemical relationship through silica content.44

Specific Surface Area (SSA) and Porosity: Both materials are porous, but their pore structures differ. Zeolites have a crystalline microporous structure, while diatomite’s porosity stems from the intricate, hollow frustules of diatoms. Measured BET SSA can vary; one study reported zeolite (clinoptilolite) at 31.49 m2/g and diatomite at 23.64 m2/g 20, though diatomite is generally known for very high porosity.

Effect on Setting Time: In the comparative study, zeolite tended to reduce the setting time of cement paste, whereas diatomite tended to increase it.

Mechanical Strength Contribution: The same study 20 found that at a 10% replacement level, zeolite-modified mortar exhibited higher 28-day compressive strength compared to diatomite-modified mortar. In an overall ranking of four natural additives (zeolite, diatomite, trass, bentonite) based on their beneficial influence on 28-day mortar strength, zeolite was ranked highest, followed by trass, then diatomite, and lastly bentonite.

Other Physical Differences: General comparisons (though not always in a pozzolanic context) describe diatomite as being softer, more brittle, and lighter in weight, while zeolite is harder and heavier.43 A key distinguishing feature is zeolite’s significantly higher Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) compared to diatomite, which is primarily siliceous.43

While both materials are effective pozzolans, these differences suggest that zeolites (particularly clinoptilolite-rich varieties) might offer a slight advantage in terms of long-term strength development as observed in some studies. Furthermore, the pronounced ion-exchange capacity of zeolites provides a distinct secondary benefit, particularly in the context of ASR mitigation by sequestering alkali ions, an effect that may not be as significant in diatomite due to its lower aluminosilicate content and CEC.

However, the high amorphous silica content of diatomite can lead to very high pozzolanic reactivity if it is properly processed and its particle characteristics are optimized. The choice between natural pozzolans like zeolite and diatomite is therefore not always straightforward. It depends on factors such as the quality and consistency of local deposits, mining and processing costs, transportation logistics, and the specific performance enhancements desired in the concrete application. A thorough characterization of the specific mineral deposit is crucial for predicting the performance of either material.

Table 3: Comparative Overview: Natural Zeolite vs. Diatomite as Potential Pozzolans (Synthesized from 20 and general knowledge)

7. Economic Viability and Market Landscape for Zeolite Pozzolans

The economic feasibility and market adoption of natural zeolites as pozzolans are influenced by a combination of production costs, market demand for SCMs, and the value they add to concrete.

Natural Zeolite Production and Market Size: The global market for zeolites, encompassing both natural and synthetic types, is substantial and projected for steady growth. One market report indicates growth from USD 8.96 billion in 2024 to USD 11.13 billion by 2030, at a Compound Annual Growth Rate (CAGR) of 3.7%.45

Within this, natural zeolites constitute a significant segment, estimated to hold the second-largest market share, driven by their applications in agriculture, water treatment, construction (including pozzolans), and animal feed. Another analysis focused specifically on the natural zeolites market valued it at USD 2,827 million in 2025, with a projected CAGR of 4.9% from 2025 to 2033.21 In the United States, annual production of natural zeolites has been around 86,000 to 87,000 metric tons in recent years, with New Mexico, California, Idaho, Texas, Oregon, and Arizona being the leading producing states. St. Cloud Mining is recognized as a major North American producer with operations across several of these states.

Globally, North America and Asia (particularly China) are dominant forces in natural zeolite production. The demand for natural zeolites is propelled by diverse end-uses, including animal feed, odor control, water purification, soil amendments, and increasingly, as pozzolans in construction.

Factors Influencing Cost and Pricing: The price of natural zeolite products is not uniform and depends on several factors: the purity (percentage of zeolite mineral), the presence and type of accessory minerals, specific chemical and physical properties of the zeolite (e.g., CEC, Si/Al ratio), particle size, the degree of processing (such as grinding, drying, or activation), and the intended end-use application.23 Bulk prices for natural zeolites, FOB mine, were reported in a range of $110 to $950 per metric ton in 2022.23 For example, Bear River Zeolite’s average sales price for clinoptilolite products was approximately $243 per metric ton in 2022.23 Mining and processing (crushing, grinding, screening, drying) represent significant cost components. Transportation costs are also a major consideration, particularly for lower-value, bulk applications like pozzolans, as they can limit the economic radius from the mine to the market.

Economic Benefits of Using Zeolites in Concrete:
The incorporation of natural zeolites as pozzolans in concrete offers several economic advantages:

Reduction in Portland Cement Content: Replacing a portion of Portland cement (typically 10-30%) with less expensive natural zeolite can lead to direct cost savings in concrete production, as cement is usually the most expensive component of the mix. This also translates to a reduction in the embodied energy and CO2​ emissions associated with the concrete, which can have indirect economic benefits through carbon taxes or credits.

Enhanced Durability and Service Life: The improvements in concrete durability conferred by zeolites—such as increased resistance to ASR, sulfate attack, and chloride penetration—can lead to a longer service life for concrete structures and reduced maintenance and repair costs over the structure’s lifetime.

Utilization of Abundant Natural Resources: Zeolites are relatively abundant natural minerals, and their utilization as SCMs promotes the efficient use of local resources, potentially reducing reliance on imported cement or other SCMs.

The overall economic viability of natural zeolites as pozzolans is thus a complex equation. It involves balancing the raw material cost (which can be relatively low for unprocessed bulk material), the added costs of processing (grinding to pozzolanic fineness, potential activation or beneficiation), and transportation, against the value they provide through cement replacement, performance enhancement, and long-term durability benefits. This cost-benefit analysis must also consider the prevailing prices of Portland cement and competing SCMs in a given region. Fluctuations in energy prices, which affect cement production costs as well as zeolite processing and transport, and the evolution of carbon pricing mechanisms or incentives for low-carbon construction materials, can significantly influence the economic attractiveness of natural zeolites. As the emphasis on sustainable and low-carbon construction intensifies, the economic case for utilizing materials like natural zeolites is likely to strengthen.

• Challenges and Considerations in Utilizing Natural Zeolites

Despite the promising attributes of natural zeolites as pozzolans, several challenges and considerations must be addressed to facilitate their widespread and effective use in the concrete industry.

Variability of Natural Deposits: This is perhaps the most significant challenge. Natural zeolite deposits are inherently heterogeneous, with variations in mineralogical composition (e.g., type of zeolite, such as clinoptilolite, mordenite, etc.), purity (presence of non-zeolitic minerals like clays, quartz, feldspar), Si/Al ratio, cation exchange capacity, and particle characteristics. This variability can occur not only between different geological sources but also within a single deposit. Such inconsistencies directly impact the pozzolanic reactivity and overall performance of the zeolite in concrete, making it difficult to predict behavior without thorough characterization. Effective utilization, therefore, requires careful geological assessment of deposits, potentially selective mining practices, and rigorous, ongoing quality control measures to ensure a consistent product.

Increased Water Demand and Workability Issues: As discussed earlier, the high porosity and specific surface area of most natural zeolites lead to increased water absorption when mixed into concrete. This typically results in a higher water demand to achieve the desired slump or workability, or necessitates the use of chemical admixtures like superplasticizers. While manageable, this can add to the cost of the concrete mix and, if not properly accounted for, could lead to issues like increased shrinkage or reduced strength due to a higher effective water-binder ratio.

Need for Standardization and Quality Control: Compared to well-established SCMs like fly ash or silica fume, which have more specific ASTM or EN standards guiding their use, natural zeolites (while classifiable under general natural pozzolan categories like ASTM C618 Class N) may lack the detailed, material-specific standards that engineers and specifiers rely on for consistent performance. The development and adoption of robust quality control protocols and potentially more tailored standards for pozzolanic zeolites are crucial for building industry confidence. This lack of specific standards, compounded by natural variability, creates a significant barrier to mainstream adoption.

Processing Requirements: Raw mined zeolite typically requires processing, primarily grinding to a fineness suitable for pozzolanic reaction (e.g., similar to or finer than cement). This comminution step consumes energy and adds to the production cost. Depending on the deposit’s quality, beneficiation processes to remove deleterious impurities or thermal/chemical activation to enhance reactivity might be necessary, further adding to complexity and cost.

Competition from Other SCMs and Materials: Natural zeolites compete in the SCM market with established materials like fly ash, ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBFS), silica fume, and other natural pozzolans such as diatomite or volcanic ash. The availability, cost, local regulations, and proven performance track record of these alternatives influence the adoption rate of zeolites. Furthermore, zeolites have diverse applications outside of construction (e.g., agriculture, water treatment, animal feed), and demand from these sectors can affect overall production economics and availability for use as pozzolans.

 Limited Awareness, Acceptance, and Skilled Professionals: There can be a lack of widespread awareness and confidence within the construction industry regarding the benefits, proper application, and long-term performance of natural pozzolans, including zeolites. A shortage of professionals adequately skilled in designing and implementing concrete mixes with these materials can also hinder adoption.

Potential for Unreacted Material: Especially at higher replacement levels, a portion of the zeolite may remain unreacted in the concrete matrix. While this might contribute to filler effects, it represents an inefficient use of the pozzolanic potential and could, in some cases, lead to an increase in fine porosity if these unreacted particles are themselves porous.

Environmental Impact of Sourcing and Processing: While the use of zeolites as a cement replacement contributes to making concrete “greener” by reducing clinker content, the extraction (mining) and processing (grinding, transport, potential activation) of zeolites themselves have an associated environmental footprint (energy consumption, land use, emissions).37 A comprehensive life-cycle assessment (LCA) is necessary to fully understand the net environmental benefit. This presents a nuanced perspective: while “natural” is appealing for sustainability, realizing this potential often requires “industrial” interventions for characterization, processing, and quality control, which carry their own environmental and economic costs.

Addressing these challenges through continued research, technological advancements in processing and characterization, development of industry standards, and education will be key to unlocking the full potential of natural zeolites as a mainstream SCM.

• The Future of Zeolites in Sustainable Construction

The trajectory for natural zeolites in the construction sector appears promising, largely driven by the overarching global push towards sustainability and carbon footprint reduction in building materials.

Growing Demand for Green Building Materials and CO2 Reduction: The primary impetus for exploring and utilizing zeolites is the urgent need to decrease the significant CO2​ emissions associated with Portland cement manufacturing.1 As SCMs, zeolites directly contribute to this goal by enabling a reduction in the clinker factor of cement. The increasing global emphasis on sustainable construction practices, green building certifications, and policies favoring low-carbon materials will continue to fuel demand for effective pozzolans like zeolites.

Potential for Advanced Applications and Material Enhancement:

Modified Zeolites: Research into modifying natural zeolites through thermal treatment (calcination) or chemical activation is ongoing. Such modifications can enhance their pozzolanic reactivity, improve their ion-exchange capabilities for targeted pollutant capture (e.g., heavy metals from waste streams incorporated into concrete), or boost their effectiveness in controlling deleterious reactions like ASR.

Role in Carbon Capture, Utilization, and Storage (CCUS) within Concrete: The inherent microporous structure and adsorption capabilities of zeolites offer intriguing possibilities for direct air capture of CO2​ or for facilitating CO2​ mineralization reactions within the concrete matrix itself. While still an emerging area, some studies hint at the potential for zeolites to capture greenhouse gases or be used in innovative carbonation techniques.

Nano-Zeolites: The application of nanotechnology to zeolites, creating nano-sized particles, could open doors to advanced composite materials with tailored properties, potentially offering superior reactivity and microstructural refinement.

Integration with Artificial Intelligence (AI) for Optimized Green Construction: AI and machine learning algorithms can play a vital role in optimizing the use of zeolites. This includes designing complex concrete mixes incorporating zeolites and other SCMs, predicting long-term performance based on material characteristics, and developing strategies for creating energy-efficient and climate-adaptive building components.

Alignment with Circular Economy Principles: The use of zeolites aligns well with the principles of a circular economy by promoting the efficient utilization of abundant natural resources. Furthermore, research into the recycling and repurposing of zeolite-containing construction materials or zeolites from other end-of-life applications could further enhance their sustainability profile.

Ongoing Research and Development for SCMs: The field of SCMs is dynamic, with continuous research focused on discovering new sources, improving the performance of existing ones, and understanding their complex interactions within cementitious systems. Future research will likely focus on maximizing the synergistic benefits of zeolites when used in combination with other SCMs or fibers, developing methods to consistently address their natural variability, and devising strategies to mitigate challenges like increased water demand. Innovations in concrete technology and material science are identified as major trends shaping the future of SCMs.

The future of zeolites in construction may not solely be as a standalone SCM replacement for cement. Instead, their greatest potential might be realized through synergistic combinations with other advanced materials (e.g., other pozzolans, industrial by-products, reinforcing fibers) and enabling technologies (such as chemical modification techniques or AI-driven design and quality control). Such integrated approaches could lead to the development of high-performance, multi-functional, and truly sustainable cementitious composites, tailored for specific applications and environmental conditions. To achieve this, a multi-disciplinary effort involving geology, materials science, chemistry, data science, and civil engineering will be crucial to innovate across the entire value chain, from resource assessment and processing to application and end-of-life considerations.

8. Conclusion: Embracing Zeolites for a Greener Built Environment

Natural zeolites present a compelling case as valuable pozzolanic materials capable of significantly contributing to the evolution of more sustainable and durable concrete. Their inherent aluminosilicate composition and unique microporous structure enable them to react with calcium hydroxide in hydrating cement, leading to the formation of additional strength-giving compounds. This pozzolanic activity translates into several key benefits: a reduction in the required Portland cement content, which directly lowers the CO2​ footprint and production costs of concrete; an enhancement of mechanical properties, particularly long-term compressive and tensile strengths; and a marked improvement in concrete durability, including increased resistance to chloride ingress, sulfate attack, and the damaging effects of alkali-silica reaction.

However, the path to widespread adoption of natural zeolites as a mainstream SCM is not without its obstacles. The inherent variability of natural deposits poses a significant challenge, necessitating rigorous characterization, quality control, and potentially selective mining or beneficiation to ensure consistent performance. Their tendency to increase the water demand of fresh concrete requires careful mix design and often the use of superplasticizers. Furthermore, the lack of specific, widely recognized industry standards for pozzolanic zeolites, coupled with limited industry familiarity compared to more established SCMs, can act as a barrier to their broader acceptance.

Despite these challenges, the potential of natural zeolites is undeniable. They represent an abundant natural resource that, if harnessed effectively, can play a crucial role in the construction industry’s transition towards greater environmental responsibility. The journey from a promising material in research laboratories to a commonly specified SCM in construction projects will depend on a concerted and collaborative effort. This includes continued research to optimize their processing and performance, develop innovative modification techniques, and better understand their long-term behavior in diverse concrete applications. Crucially, the development of clear industry standards and guidelines, alongside educational initiatives to increase awareness and expertise among professionals, will be paramount.

By addressing the existing challenges through scientific endeavor and industry collaboration, natural zeolites can be increasingly embraced, allowing the construction sector to leverage these remarkable minerals for building a stronger, more resilient, and significantly greener built environment for the future. The successful integration of zeolites and similar natural pozzolans is not just a material science advancement but a vital step towards achieving global sustainability goals in one of the world’s largest industries.

Works cited

• Zeolite Concrete – Laboratory for Advanced Materials and Processes, accessed June 10, 2025, https://depts.washington.edu/lampr/projects/concrete/
• Sustainable Low-Carbon Cement: Performance Enhancement with Calcined Natural Pozzolans Through Compressive Strength, Porosity, and Microstructural Analysis – PMC, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC12028415/
• Chemical Reactions in Pozzolanic Concrete – Lupine Publishers, accessed June 10, 2025, https://lupinepublishers.com/material-science-journal/fulltext/chemical-reactions-in-pozzolanic-concrete.ID.000120.php
• www.concrete.org, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.concrete.org/frequentlyaskedquestions.aspx?faqid=688#:~:text=A%20pozzolan%20is%20a%20siliceous,form%20compounds%20having%20cementitious%20properties.
• https://www.burgex.com/2025/05/20/diatomite-as-a-natural-pozzolan-for-cement-and-concrete/
• Diatomite as a Natural Pozzolan for Cement and Concrete | Burgex …, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.burgex.com/2025/05/20/diatomite-as-a-natural-pozzolan-for-cement-and-concrete/
• Zeolites, accessed June 10, 2025, https://cool.culturalheritage.org/byorg/abbey/an/an20/an20-7/an20-702.html
• Zeolite | Imerys, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.imerys.com/minerals/zeolite
• What are Zeolites: Types, Structure, Properties & Applications – Allen, accessed June 10, 2025, https://allen.in/jee/chemistry/zeolites
• unacademy.com, accessed June 10, 2025, https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/chemistry/chemical-composition-and-structure-of-zeolites/#:~:text=from%20the%20body.-,Ans%20%3A%20Zeolites%20are%20crystalline%20solids%20consisting%20of%20silicon%2C%20aluminium%2C,%2C%20and%2For%20tiny%20molecules.
• Chemical Composition and Structure Of Zeolites – Unacademy, accessed June 10, 2025, https://unacademy.com/content/upsc/study-material/chemistry/chemical-composition-and-structure-of-zeolites/
• www.acsmaterial.com, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.acsmaterial.com/blog-detail/introduction-to-zeolites.html#:~:text=Zeolites%2C%20which%20are%20also%20called,and%20cavities%20of%20molecular%20dimensions.
• Cation Exchange of Natural Zeolites: Worldwide Research – MDPI, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/13/14/7751
• Zeolite – Wikipedia, accessed June 10, 2025, https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolite
• Zeolites in Adsorption Processes: State of the Art and Future Prospects | Chemical Reviews, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.chemrev.2c00140
• Pozzolanic Activity of Zeolites: The Role of Si/Al Ratio – PMC, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC6947560/
• Complex Effect of Portland Cement Modified with Natural Zeolite and Ground Glass Mixture on Durability Properties of Concrete – MDPI, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/13/10/2576
• www.researchgate.net, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286392007_Zeolite_formation_and_deposits#:~:text=Zeolites%20are%20the%20main%20mineral,variable%20geochemical%20and%20temperature%20conditions.
• A STUDY ON CONCRETE USING NATURAL ZEOLITE – IRJMETS, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.irjmets.com/uploadedfiles/paper//issue_10_october_2022/30795/final/fin_irjmets1666453659.pdf
• Implementation of Alternative Mineral Additives in Low-Emission …, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC8585175/
• Natural Zeolites 2025-2033 Overview: Trends, Competitor Dynamics, and Opportunities, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.archivemarketresearch.com/reports/natural-zeolites-74453
• Comparison of the Synthesis Method of Zeolite Catalysts Based on Pozzolan, Pumice, and Ignimbrite Applied to the Sustainable Pyrolysis of Polymers – MDPI, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/17/7/2986
• ZEOLITES – Mining Engineering Online – Official Publication of SME, accessed June 10, 2025, https://me.smenet.org/zeolites-2/
• About St. Cloud Mining, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.stcloudmining.com/about-us/company
• (PDF) Ion Exchange in Zeolites – ResearchGate, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/280052547_Ion_Exchange_in_Zeolites
• Zeolite Ion Exchange Softening, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mrwa.com/WaterWorksMnl/Chapter%2017%20Ion%20Exchange%20Softening.pdf
• Effect of modified zeolite on the expansion of alkaline silica reaction, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/229356110_Effect_of_modified_zeolite_on_the_expansion_of_alkaline_silica_reaction
• What is a pozzolan? – American Concrete Institute, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.concrete.org/frequentlyaskedquestions.aspx?faqid=688
• lupinepublishers.com, accessed June 10, 2025, https://lupinepublishers.com/material-science-journal/fulltext/chemical-reactions-in-pozzolanic-concrete.ID.000120.php#:~:text=A%20pozzolanic%20material%20relies%20on,strength%20development%20up%20to%20and
• Determination of pozzolanic activity for using natural zeolite analcime in sustainability additive cement products – SciSpace, accessed June 10, 2025, https://scispace.com/pdf/determination-of-pozzolanic-activity-for-using-natural-3xdk9wbetb.pdf
• Some advances in understanding the pozzolanic activity of zeolites: The effect of zeolite structure | Request PDF – ResearchGate, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/244484063_Some_advances_in_understanding_the_pozzolanic_activity_of_zeolites_The_effect_of_zeolite_structure
• US7303015B2 – Cementitious compositions containing interground cement clinker and zeolite – Google Patents, accessed June 10, 2025, https://patents.google.com/patent/US7303015B2/en
• An experimental study on durability properties of concrete containing zeolite as a highly reactive natural pozzolan | Request PDF – ResearchGate, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/258033400_An_experimental_study_on_durability_properties_of_concrete_containing_zeolite_as_a_highly_reactive_natural_pozzolan
• A LITERATURE REVIEW ON THE USE OF NATURAL POZZOLANA IN NEW ZEALAND AND THE POTENTIAL FOR IT TO BE USED AS A SUSTAINABLE SUPPLEME, accessed June 10, 2025, https://cdn.ymaws.com/concretenz.org.nz/resource/resmgr/docs/conf/2023/s5a_p5.pdf
• The Effect of Natural and Synthesised Zeolites on Cement-Based Materials Hydration and Hardened State Properties, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC10456263/
• A Review of Unveiling the Promise of Natural Zeolites: Enhancing Concrete Properties (with Experimental Study) – AIP Publishing, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pubs.aip.org/aip/acp/article-pdf/doi/10.1063/5.0236497/20258993/020076_1_5.0236497.pdf
• Sustainable High-Performance Concrete Using Zeolite Powder …, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/14/11/3660
• Laboratory Study of the Effect of Zeolite and Cement Compound on the Unconfined Compressive Strength of a Stabilized Base Layer of Road Pavement – PubMed Central, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pmc.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/articles/PMC9695197/
• Influence of zeolite on compressive strength, permeability and resistance to chlorine ion attack in concrete, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.jiraeg.ir/&url=http:/www.jiraeg.ir/article_111250.html?lang=en
• IMPACT OF NATURAL ZEOLITE ON THE PROPERTIES AND RESISTANCE TO ALKALI SILICA REACTION OF MORTAR, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www2.irsm.cas.cz/materialy/cs_content/2021_doi/Nagrockiene_CS_2021_0033.pdf
• ZEOLITE BLENDED CEMENT FOR BETTER SULPHATE RESISTANCE ABSTRACT – OPUS at UTS, accessed June 10, 2025, https://opus.cloud1.lib.uts.edu.au/bitstream/10453/6674/1/2003002181.pdf
• MODIFIED SULPHATE-RESISTANT PORTLAND CEMENTS WITH THE ZEOLITE ADDITIVE, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/361949078_MODIFIED_SULPHATE-RESISTANT_PORTLAND_CEMENTS_WITH_THE_ZEOLITE_ADDITIVE
• Diatomite Vs Zeolite – AusBonsai, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.ausbonsai.com.au/forum/viewtopic.php?t=8602
• Synthesis and Characterization of Na-X Zeolite Using a Natural Opaline Diatomite Rock from SE Spain – MDPI, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-163X/15/3/238
• Zeolites Market Report 2025, by Type (Natural, Synthetic),, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.globenewswire.com/news-release/2025/03/24/3047988/28124/en/Zeolites-Market-Report-2025-by-Type-Natural-Synthetic-Function-Lon-Exchange-Molecular-Sieve-Catalyst-Synthetic-Zeolites-Application-Detergents-Absorbent-Catalysis-Pore-Size-and-Reg.html
• zeolites (natural) – Mineral Commodity Summaries 2024 – USGS.gov, accessed June 10, 2025, https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2024/mcs2024-zeolites.pdf
• Revolutionising Green Construction: Harnessing Zeolite and AI-Driven Initiatives for Net-Zero and Climate-Adaptive Buildings – MDPI, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/15/6/885
• Editorial: Supplementary cementitious materials: recent developments, performance insights and potential applicability – Frontiers, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/materials/articles/10.3389/fmats.2025.1608358/full
• Challenges and Prospects of Widespread Adoption of Pozzolans for Building Construction: A Statistical Assessment – International Journal of Engineering, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.ije.ir/article_151769.html
• Challenges and Prospects of Widespread Adoption of Pozzolans for Building Construction: A Statistical Assessment – ResearchGate, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.researchgate.net/publication/362315799_Challenges_and_Prospects_of_Widespread_Adoption_of_Pozzolans_for_Building_Construction_A_Statistical_Assessment
• www.archivemarketresearch.com, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.archivemarketresearch.com/reports/micronized-zeolites-406926#:~:text=Activated%20carbon%20and%20other%20adsorbents,depends%20on%20the%20specific%20application.
• www.mdpi.com, accessed June 10, 2025, https://www.mdpi.com/2075-5309/15/6/885#:~:text=Zeolite%20has%20shown%20its%20potential,and%20cooling%20systems%20%5B4%5D.
• How Will the Supplementary Cementitious Materials Market Grow? Key Trends and Opportunities for 2025 and Beyond, accessed June 10, 2025, https://blog.tbrc.info/2025/03/supplementary-cementitious-materials-market-size-2/